Cholinergic neurotransmission, mediated primarily through the neurotransmitter acetylcholine (ACh), is a predominant regulator of the physiological functions of the body via the central and autonomic nervous system. ACh acts on the synapses of the neurons present in all of the autonomic ganglia, neuromuscular junctions, and the central nervous system. Two distinct classes of ACh target receptors viz. muscarinic (mAChRs) and the nicotinic (nAChRs) have been identified in the brain, forming a significant component of receptors carrying out its mnemonic and other vital physiological functions.
Neural nicotinic ACh receptors (NNRs) belong to the class of ligandgated ion channels (LGIC) comprising five subunits (α2-α10, β2-β4) arranged in heteropentameric (α4β2) or homopentameric (α7) configuration (David Paterson et al., Progress in Neurobiology, 61 (2000), 75-111). α4β2 and α7 nAChR constitute the predominant subtypes expressed in the mammalian brain. α7 nAChR has attained prominence as a therapeutic target due to its abundant expression in the learning and memory centres of brain, hippocampus and the cerebral cortex (F. Rubboli et al., Neurochem. Int., 1994, 25 (1), 69-71). Particularly, α7 nAChR is characterized by a high Ca2+ ion permeability, which is responsible for neurotransmitter release and consequent modulation of excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmission (Manickavasagom Alkondon et al., European Journal of Pharmacology, 393 (2000), 59-67; Federico Dajas-Bailador et al., TRENDS in Pharmacological Sciences, 2004, 25(6), 317-324). Furthermore, high Ca2+ ion influx also has implications on the long-term potentiation of memory via alterations in gene expression (Robert S. Bitner et al., The Journal of Neuroscience, 2007, 27(39), 10578-10587; Bruce E. McKay et al., Biochemical Pharmacology, 74 (2007), 1120-1133).
Several recent studies have confirmed the role of α7 nAChR in neural processes like attention, memory and cognition (Huibert D. Mansvelder et al., Psychopharmacology, (2006), 184, 292-305; Wai Kit Chan et al., Neuropharmacology, 52 (2007), 1641-1649; Jared W. Young et al., European Neuropsychopharmacology, (2007), 17, 145-155). Gene polymorphisms associated with the α7 nAChR protein CHRNA7 have been implicated in the genetic transmission of schizophrenia, related neurophysiological sensory gating deficits and resultant cognitive impairment (Robert Freedman et al., Biol. Psychiatry, 1995, 38, 22-33; Debby W. Tsuang et al., American Journal of Medical Genetics (Neuropsychiatric Genetics, 105, 662-668 (2001)). Also, preclinical studies in α7 nAChR knock-out and anti-sense oligonucleotide treated mice have demonstrated impaired attention and defective cognition underscoring the prominent role of α7 nAChR in cognition (Peter Curzon et al., Neuroscience Letters, 410 (2006), 15-19; Jared W. Young et al., Neuropsychopharmacology, (2004), 29, 891-900). Additionally, pharmacological blockade of α7 nAChR impairs memory and its activation enhances the same in preclinical rodent models, thereby implicating α7 nAChR as a target for cognitive enhancement (Kenji Hashimoto et al., Biol. Psychiatry, 2008, 63, 92-97).
Pathological brain function in sensory-deficit disorders has been associated with nicotinic cholinergic transmission particularly through α7 receptors (Robert Freedman et al., Biol. Psychiatry, 1995, 38, 22-33; T Debby W. Tsuang et al., American Journal of Medical Genetics (Neuropsychiatric Genetics), 105, 662-668 (2001); Robyn Carson et al., Neuromol., Med. (2008), 10, 377-384; S. Leonard et al., Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behaviour, 70 (2001), 561-570; Robert Freedman et al., Current Psychiatry Report, 2003, 5, 155-161; Tyrone D. Cannon et al., Current Opinion Psychiatry, 2005, 18, 135-140). A defective pre-attention processing of sensory information is understood to be the basis of cognitive fragmentation in schizophrenia and related neuropsychiatric disorders (Steven C. Leiser et al., Pharmacology & Therapeutics, 122(3), (2009), 302-311). Genetic linkage studies have traced sharing of the α7 gene locus for several affective, attention, anxiety and psychotic disorders (S. Leonard et al., Pharmacology, Biochemistry and Behaviour, 70 (2001), 561-570; Suemaru K. Folia et al., Folia Pharmacol. Jpn., 119, 295-300 (2002)).
Perturbations in the cholinergic and glutamatergic homeostasis have long been implicated as causative factors for a host of neurological diseases, including dementia(s) (Eran Nizri et al., Drug News Perspect., 2007, 20(7), 421-429). Dementia is a severe, progressive, multi-factorial cognitive disorder affecting memory, attention, language, and problem solving. Nicotinic ACh receptor, particularly the interaction of α7 receptor with αβ1-42, is implicated as an up-stream pathogenic event in Alzheimer's disease, which is a major causative factor for dementia (Hoau-Yan Wang et al., The Journal of Neuroscience, 2009, 29(35), 10961-10973). Moreover, gene polymorphisms in CHRNA7 have been implicated in dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB) and Pick's disease (Agnes Feher et al., Dement. Geriatr. Cogn. Disord., 2009, 28, 56-62).
Disease modification potential of the nAChRs, particularly the α7 receptor, has been recognized. For example, disease-modification of Alzheimer's disease (AD) and Parkinson's disease (PD) has been proposed by enhancing neuron survival and preventing neurodegeneration (Hoau-Yan Wang et al., The Journal of Neuroscience, 2009, 29(35), 10961-10973; R. G. Nagele et al., Neuroscience, 2002, 110(2), 199-211; G. Jeyarasasingam et al., Neuroscience, 2002, 109, 275-285). Additionally, it has been proposed that α7 nAChR induced activation of anti-apoptotic (BCL-2) and anti-inflammatory pathways in the brain could have neuroprotective effects in neurodegenerative diseases (Mario B. Marrero et al., Brain Research, 2009, 1256, 1-7). Dopamine-containing neurons of the ventral tegmental area (VTA) and laterodorsal tegmental nucleus (LDT) are known to express nicotinic ACh receptors, particularly the α4, α3, β2, β3, and β4 subunits (Alexander Kuzmin et al., Psychopharmacology, (2009), 203, 99-108). Nicotinic ACh receptors α4β2 and α3β4 have been identified by the candidate-gene approach to have a strong mechanistic link for nicotine addiction (Robert B. Weiss et al., PLoS Genetics, 2008, 4(7), e1000125). α7 nAChR has particularly been studied for a putative role in cannabis addiction (Marcello Solinas et al., The Journal of Neuroscience, 2007, 27(21), 5615-5620). Varenicline, a partial agonist of α4β2, has demonstrated better efficacy in reducing smoking addiction and relapse prevention than buproprion (Jon O. Ebbert et al., Patient Preference and Adherence, 2010, 4, 355-362).
The presence of a high-affinity nicotine binding site at α4β2 nAChR in the descending inhibitory pathways from the brainstem has sparked interest in the antinociceptive properties of nicotinic ACh receptor agonists like epibatidine (Michael Decker et al., Expert Opin. Investig. Drugs, (2001), 10(10), 1819-1830). Several new developments have opened the area for the use of nicotinic modulators in pain therapy (Michael C. Rowbotham et al., PAIN, 146, (2009), 245-252).
Another key role of the α7 nAChR is its ability to modulate the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines, like interleukins (IL), tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), and high mobility group box (HMGB-1) in the central nervous system. Consequently, anti-inflammatory and antinociceptive effects have been demonstrated in pain disorders (M. Imad Damaj et al., Neuropharmacology, 39 (2000), 2785-2791). Additionally, ‘cholinergic anti-inflammatory pathway’ has been proposed to be a regulator of local and systemic inflammation and neuro-immune interactions through neural and humoral pathways (Margot Gallowitsch-Puerta et al., Life Sci., 2007, 80(24-25), 2325-2329; Mauricio Rosas-Ballina et al., Mol. Med., 15(7-8), 195-202 (2009); M. Rosas-Ballina et al., J. Intern. Med., 2009, 265, 663-679). Selective modulators of nicotinic ACh receptors, particularly the α7type, like GTS-21, attenuate cytokine production and IL-1β after endotoxin exposure. Furthermore, α7 nAChR are understood to have a central role in arthritis pathogenesis and potential therapeutic strategy for treatment of joint inflammation (M. Westman et al., Scandinavian Journal of Immunology, 2009, 70, 136-140). A putative role for α7 nAChR has also been implicated in severe sepsis, endotoxemic shock and systemic inflammation (Y. Jin, et al., International Journal of Immunogenetics, 37, 361-365; Chong Liu et al., Crit. Care Med., 2009, 37(2), 634-641).
Angiogenesis is a critical physiological process for cell survival and is pathologically important for cancer proliferation; several non-neural nicotinic ACh receptors, particularly α7, α5, α3, β2, and β4, are involved in such processes (Hugo R. Arias et al., International Journal of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, 41 (2009), 1441-1451; Christopher Heeschen et al., The Journal of Clinical Investigation, 2002, 110(4), 527-536). The role of nicotinic ACh receptors in the development of cervical cancer, lung carcinogenesis and pediatric lung disorders in smoking-exposed population has been studied (Itzel E. Calleja-Macias et al., Int. J. Cancer., 124, 1090-1096 (2009); Hildegard M. Schuller et al., European Journal of Pharmacology, 393 (2000), 265-277). Several α7 nAChR agonists and partial agonists have been characterized for their efficacy in clinical and preclinical studies. EVP-6124, an agonist at α7 nAChR, has reportedly demonstrated a significant improvement in sensory processing and cognition biomarkers in Phase Ib study with patients suffering from schizophrenia (EnVivo Pharmaceuticals press release 2009, Jan. 12). GTS-21 (DMXB-Anabaseine), an α7 nAChR agonist, in the P II clinical trials, has reportedly shown efficacy in improving cognitive deficits in schizophrenia and the inhibition of endotoxin-induced TNF-α release (Ann Olincy et al., Biol. Psychiatry, 2005, 57(8, Suppl.), Abst 44; Ann Olincy et al., Arch. Gen. Psychiatry, 2006, 63, 630-638; Richard Goldstein et al., Acad. Emerg. Med., 2007, 14(5), s185-s186). CP-810123, an α7 nAChR agonist, reportedly exhibits protection against scopolamine-induced dementia and inhibition of amphetamine-induced auditory evoked potentials in preclinical studies (Christopher J. O'Donnell et al., J. Med. Chem., 2010, 53, 1222-1237). SSR-180711A, also an α7 nAChR agonist, reportedly enhances learning and memory, and protects against MK-801/scopolamine-induced memory loss and prepulse inhibition in preclinical studies (John P. Redrobe et al., European Journal of Pharmacology, 602 (2009), 58-65; John Dunlop et al., Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, 2009, 328, 766-776; Philippe Pichat et al., Neuropsychopharmacology, 2007, 32, 17-34). SEN-12333 reportedly protects against scopolamine-induced amnesia in a passive avoidance test in preclinical studies (Renza Roncarati et al., The Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, 2009, 329, 459-468). AR-R-17779, an agonist of the α7 nAChR, reportedly exhibits an improvement in the social recognition task performed in rats (Marja Van Kampen et al., Psychopharmacology, 2004, 172, 375-383). ABBF, an agonist of the α7 nAChR, reportedly improves social recognition memory and working memory in the Morris maze task in rats (Frank G. Boess et al., The Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, 2007, 321, 716-725). TC-5619, a selective α7 nAChR agonist has reportedly demonstrated efficacy in animal models of positive and negative symptoms and cognitive dysfunction in schizophrenia (T. A. Hauser et al., Biochemical Pharmacology, 78 (2009), 803-812).
An alternative strategy to reinforce or potentiate the endogenous cholinergic neurotransmission of ACh without directly stimulating the target receptor is the positive allosteric modulation (PAM) of α7 nAChR (E. X. Albuquerque et al., Alzheimer Diseases and Associated Disorder, Vol. 15, Suppl 1, S19-S25). Several PAMs have been characterized, albeit only in preclinical stages of discovery. A-86774, an α7 nAChR PAM, reportedly improves sensory gating in DBA/2 mice by significantly reducing the T: C ratio in a preclinical model of schizophrenia (Ramin Faghih et al., Journal of Medicinal Chemistry, 2009, 52, 3377-3384). XY-4083, an α7 nAChR PAM, reportedly normalizes the sensorimotor gating deficits in the DBA/2 mice and memory acquisition in the 8-arm radial maze test without altering the receptor desensitization kinetics (Herman J. Hg et al., PNAS, 2007, 104 (19), 8059-8064). Yet another PAM, PNU-120596, reportedly alters α7 nAChR desensitization kinetics while simultaneously protecting against the disruption of prepulse inhibition by MK-801. NS-1738, another PAM, reportedly exhibits efficacy in-vivo in the animal models of social recognition and spatial memory acquisition in the Morris maze task (Daniel B. Timmermann et al., Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, 2007, 323, 294-307). In addition, several patents/applications published are listed below—US 2006/0142349, US 2007/0142450, US 2009/0253691, WO 2007/031440, WO 2009/115547, WO2009/135944, WO 2009/127678, WO 2009/127679, WO 2009/043780, WO2009/043784, U.S. Pat. No. 7,683,084, U.S. Pat. No. 7,741,364, WO 2009/145996, US 2010/0240707, WO 2011/064288, US 2010/0222398, US 2010/0227869, EP 1866314, WO 2010/130768, WO 2011/036167, US 2010/0190819, WO 2012/104782, WO 2012/114285, WO 2012/131576, WO 2013/005153, and WO 2013/132380, which reportedly disclose efficacy of allosteric modulators of nicotinic ACh receptors, underscoring their therapeutic potential.
Despite the foregoing proposals in the art, there exists a need for novel modulators of the nicotinic acetylcholine receptors, particularly the α7 nAChR, pharmaceutical compositions comprising such modulators, and methods of treating diseases, disorders, or conditions that are treatable or preventable by the use of such modulators.